“Her Majesty’s plenipotentiary has now to announce the conclusion of preliminary arrangements between the imperial commissioner and himself involving the following conditions: 8 V: J x u# @8 M: Q
The cession of the island and harbour of Hongkong to the British crown. All just charges and duties tot the empire upon the commerce carried on there to be paid as if the trade were conducted at Whampoa.
An indemnity to the British government of six millions of dollars, on million payable at once, remainder in equal annual instalments ending in 1846.
Direct official intercourse between the countries upon equal footing.
The trade of the port of Canton to be opened within ten further arrangements are practicable at the new settlement."
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TVBNOW 含有熱門話題,最新最快電視,軟體,遊戲,電影,動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。5 E7 M8 D# b( a% t& Z
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亞洲電視節目《解密百年香港 – 哪裡是香港》,簡述《穿鼻草約》的合法性。
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由17世紀開始,英國為了壟㫁貿易,一般都會透過獲得海外領土,來擴張盎格魯撒克遜在當地的商貿權力 [5] 。按此經驗來看,從義律和後來接任的砵甸乍銳意割讓香港之目的可見,假如英國成功取得香港作為海外領土,香港便成為了其在華鴉片和其他貿易的據點。因此,割讓香港的其中一個重要原因,便是要將香港開辟為自由港,成為對內通市的通商口岸,而草約便是使「開辟」合理的法律工具。 ; N# e. x& F9 S6 b atvb now,tvbnow,bttvb& f' X- A; k1 E4 c' K
可是,當時《穿鼻草約》沒有簽訂和承認,香港割讓只是建立在英軍的實際佔領和升旗禮之上,因此草約亦不能成為使「開辟」商埠合理的法律工具。對於類似國際間的強佔行為, 19 世紀初的國際法能夠產生約束力嗎?國際法又是如何詮釋條約效力的? # q. |- q3 Z4 v0 J8 K3 @" l3 DTVBNOW 含有熱門話題,最新最快電視,軟體,遊戲,電影,動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。 " g; S. g J# K7 C現今泛指國際法這一詞,在 19 世紀後半葉一般稱為歐洲公法 (droit public de I’Europe, European public law) 。當時歐洲公法的特徵,主要都是圍繞著保障歐洲國際社會利益,例如歐洲中心主義、擴張主義等的法律秩序。歐洲認為公法是「文明國家之間的法律」,世界亦因而給劃分為歐洲文明國家、中國等半文明國家,和野蠻國家。為了要將侵略世界非文明國家的擴張行為合理化,歐洲公法乃成為一種帝國主義的法律工具 [6] 。 . ^5 ~! d; ?0 S% F9 b9 P% g1 vwww2.tvboxnow.com 8 N# x" x* B$ W- o公仔箱論壇公仔箱論壇; T1 W+ l$ V+ @( F ]. W$ l
為証明自己是公正無私的文明國家,並要迫使不文明國家遵循他們的價值觀和法理規範來行事,以維護其特權和利益,在 18 世紀初,國際法著作便成為這種擴張主義的白手套。而國際法作者的國藉,便顯得尤其關鍵 – 列強爭相出版國際法。而當中的焦點,便是那個國家更有資格代表普世價值。因此, 19 世紀最著名的國際法著作,1836年分別在倫敦和費城出版的《Elements of International Law》(中譯為《國際法原理》),能夠在 1864 年由美國傳教士丁韙良 (W. A. P. Martin, 1827-1916) 翻譯為漢語版《萬國公法》,美國政府對翻譯的推動,包括時任中國海關稅務司司長赫德 (Sir Robert Hart, 1835-1911) 的支持,實在不可或缺 [7] 。因此,當時國際法的約束力,較為適用於列強間的秩序維繫和利益分配,多於對國際間的無限擴張。 - S- ]$ ~+ r" m7 v8 Hwww2.tvboxnow.com6 D' o7 J# \$ ], w
在過去一個多世紀,世界各地在國際法和平條約的領土割讓實例中,一般劃分為因征服而割讓 (subjugation) ,和因條約 (treaty) 買賣而割讓兩種,而兩者均必須以條約為法律依據。那麼,條約基於什麼條件才產生法律效力?《國際法原理》第二章第五節中指出,有效的條約必須首先由君主賦予全權的代表,在達成協議之後,雙方代表簽署才能正式生效 [8] : K5 I8 B! H: D1 ?6 ?TVBNOW 含有熱門話題,最新最快電視,軟體,遊戲,電影,動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。
As to other public treaties: in order to enable a public minister or other diplomatic agent to conclude and sign a treaty with the government to which he is accredited, he must be furnished with a full power, independent of his general letter of credence. Grotius, and after him Puffendorf, consider treaties and conventions, thus negotiated and signed, as binding upon the sovereign in whose name they are concluded, in the same manner as any other contract made by a duly authorised agent binds his principal according to the general rules of civil jurisprudence.# W' ?& T2 D# B* j! M' K: `, u+ H6 o
關於代理君主的大臣之職權,文中寫道:4 w* v* X5 E6 `3 Z
the sovereign is bound by the acts of his ambassadors, within the limits of his patent full-power, although the latter may have transcended or violated his secret instruction. But if the minister exceed his authority, or undertake to treat points not contained in his full-power and instructions, the sovereign is fully justified in delaying, or even refusing his ratification.% H. L3 Z2 E% P: Z1 ^3 T; R
換言之,假如全權大臣越權商議,君主是有權拒絕公約。TVBNOW 含有熱門話題,最新最快電視,軟體,遊戲,電影,動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。) h/ v: p9 g# L' B8 C/ z
那麼,君主能夠如何拒絕呢?即使全權代表已經同意條約,只要君主能夠証明全權代表偏離了其意旨,君主是有權拒絕條約的:tvb now,tvbnow,bttvb- c9 u% [! V: r0 o0 X8 k* t
before a sovereign can honourably refuse to ratify that which has been concluded in virtue of a full power, he must have strong and solid reasons, and, in particular, he must show that his minister has deviated from his instruction. 5 A& y. T4 f) S: etvb now,tvbnow,bttvb
Such acts or engagements, which made without authority, or exceeding the limits of the authority under which they purport to be made, are called Sponions. These convention must be confirmed by express or tacit ratification.% h0 E6 |" y, e6 ]) W- R! }5 G6 t& W
此外,假如條約中包含了領土割讓,還需要得到被割讓一方的同意 [9] : ! a* D X' q8 d2 S# A) Qwww2.tvboxnow.com
the assent of the chambers, clothed with the forms of a legislative act, is considered essential to the ultimate validity of a treaty ceding any portion of the national territory.tvb now,tvbnow,bttvb' r! w9 q7 P6 N: a% v
By the general principles of private jurisprudence, recognized by most, if not all, CIVILIZED COUNTRIES, a contract obtained by violence is void. Freedom of consent to the validity of every agreement, and contracts obtained under duress are void, because the general welfare of society requires that they should be so.(大寫為筆者所加)TVBNOW 含有熱門話題,最新最快電視,軟體,遊戲,電影,動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。' f4 b. P1 P' f/ D$ X! ]4 K2 R: ^$ G
簡而言之,當時國際法似乎已清晰厘定,包含了領土割讓的條約,需要符合兩個前提才能生效:TVBNOW 含有熱門話題,最新最快電視,軟體,遊戲,電影,動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。! D% @% l' ]7 g9 o3 A, T) K
由得到由國家授權,執行國家意旨的全權代表簽訂;
需要得到被割讓一方的同意。
就首項前提來說,從 19 世紀初英國皇室對全權代表 (plentipotentiary) 職權範圍的劃定來看 [11] ,無論在條約至協定 (convention) 至協議 (agreement) 的簽訂上,義律的確擁有全權代理君主的權力。只有在特定的情況下,全權代表在簽署後的條約,才須得到君主最後的確認和批准,條約方能正式生效。. p9 }0 C8 T! e. _, B
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而大清方面,身為欽差大臣琦善的職位雖較義律為高,但其職權範圍卻比義律還少。欽差代表皇帝外出辦事,整個過程要執行皇帝旨意,代表的是朝廷的意志。雖然欽差大臣被賦予特殊權力,但他們始終離不開封建集團的制約 [12] 。有鑒於此,他不僅沒有提高還價的權力,而且按《大清律例》,他也沒有與外國簽訂條約的全權 [13] 。對於任何英方的要求,他時刻都需要先請旨才能辦理。尤其在割讓領土這種有違天朝的事,是道光帝在這場中英危機之中最為關心的,因此絕對無法容許是意料中事(當然,在簽訂條約前,雙手奉上香港的卻又是道光帝本人,這又是另一回事)。故此琦善亦曾在 1841 年 2 月 14 日和 18 日兩次給道光帝的奉文中,反覆說「未奉諭旨,亦尚未敢裁給」和「以事關印文,未敢輕許(蓋印)」 [14] 。 . p; c$ f; Q8 \0 n- Z; e ! S1 E; C& w. f簡而言之,全權代表與欽差大臣在簽訂條約上的區別在於,全權代表只要在不違背旨意或程序的情況之下,可自行簽署條約;而欽差大臣必須奏明皇帝並得到批准,才能簽訂條約。也就是說,即使琦善在《穿鼻草約》蓋上關防,無論按照大清律例還是《國際法原理》,由於沒有得到道光帝的允許,草約都應該無法生效。 # t5 d, Z- c% vwww2.tvboxnow.com至於前提的第二項,無論通商口岸還是割讓,是征服還是買賣,雙方必需達成協議,條約才具法律效力。然而,琦善和義律的廣東談判中,究竟有否同意割讓香港呢?而在國際競技場上,國際法和平條約的實際操作,是否如上述般如實執行呢?在下一篇<琦善有否同意割讓香港?《時序篇》>,筆者將會以香港割讓的個案對此進行剖析。而除香港以外,筆者亦列舉了多個 19 世紀初亞洲開埠和割讓的實例作參考。但基於篇幅所限,筆者將之置於註釋 [15] 。 / `* z4 W3 s5 { $ Y, l6 f9 }. e9 l. Y7 W公仔箱論壇註:www2.tvboxnow.com: w. k2 G! u. S! q' J( e$ J
Her Majesty’s plenipotentiary has now to announce the conclusion of preliminary arrangements between the imperial commissioner and himself involving the following conditions:, C. `1 _9 i3 Y/ k- {4 f. \
The cession of the island and harbour of Hongkong to the British crown. All just charges and duties tot the empire upon the commerce carried on there to be paid as if the trade were conducted at Whampoa.
An indemnity to the British government of six millions of dollars, on million payable at once, remainder in equal annual instalments ending in 1846.
Direct official intercourse between the countries upon equal footing.
The trade of the port of Canton to be opened within ten further arrangements are practicable at the new settlement.
根據草約所指,義律與琦善已達成「達成初步安排」 "the conclusion of preliminary arrangements between the imperial commissioner and himself" 。然而,這個「達成初步安排」的文據究竟是什麼呢?在義律發佈公吿後的第六天,即1841年1月26日英軍佔領香港這天,伯麥照會大鵬協副將賴恩爵,內容如下 [2] : 3 m( v. E/ ^1 A/ q- | Z1 ?; W& X( mtvb now,tvbnow,bttvb
Bremer, Commander-in-chief, and Elliot, Plenipotentiary, etc., by this proclamation make know to the inhabitant of the island of Hongkong, that that island has now become part of the dominions of the Queen of England by clear public agreement between the High Officers of the Celestial and British Courts…..4 D$ Y) ?/ T8 c) R, u* c
2 月 2 日,義律又向中外人士和傳媒發表第二份公告:www2.tvboxnow.com# p+ f. {; J& E3 ^8 y7 U- P
The island of Hongkong having been ceded to the British Crown under the seal of the Imperial Minister and High Commissioner Keshen, it has become necessary to provide the Government thereof, pending Her Majesty’s pleasure…… ( Z9 h( [/ ^+ x/ o+ y. D2 C
兩份公告目的在於曉喻香港居民,英國已經成為香港的新統治者。即便如此,民眾亦毋需惶恐,因為中國傳統禮儀習俗、宗教儀式、風俗習慣等個人權利不但會繼續保留,而且基於引入一種華洋分治,一島兩制的二元化法律體系 (a dual legal system) ,即華人將繼續依從中國法律及習慣,英國及其他各國人士則接受英國法的統治 [4] 。 ( R5 K0 t5 i1 c根據中國社會科學院研究員劉存寛教授,在其著作《香港史論叢》第二章<英國強佔香港島與所謂「穿鼻條約」>中指出,這兩份公告的基礎,是以 1 月 20 日的通知為依據。換言之, 2 月 1 日公告中的 "clear public agreement between the High Officers of the Celestial and British Courts" ,和義律 2 月 2 日公告中所指的 "The island of Hongkong having been ceded to the British Crown under the seal of the Imperial Minister and High Commissioner Keshen" ,都是以義律在通知中的「達成初步安排」為依據。而這個有「達成」「安排」的「文據」,便是琦善在《穿鼻草約》蓋上的關防。 0 C! q; a5 G% Z( P2 `6 E公仔箱論壇8 Q. V v% ^9 x0 ^; s n
可是,這兩份極重要的公告中,存在三個問題:公仔箱論壇 G# A, P* F3 q6 M' T0 C
You have obtained the Cession of Hong Kong, a barren Island with hardly a House upon it; and even this Cession as it is called, seems to me, from the conditions with which it is clogged, not to be a cession of the Sovereignty of the Island, which could only be made by the signature of the Emperor, but to be a permission to us to make a Settlement there, upon the same footing on which the Portuguese have an establishment at Macao. 6 r, f, ^+ z0 A- L3 Twww2.tvboxnow.com
With reference to the Proclamation which has appeared in the Newspapers of this Country, issued by you to Her Majesty’s Subjects in China, in which you declare the Island of Hong Kong to be annexed forever tot the British dominions, I have to observe to you that no part of the Territory belonging to one Sovereign can be ceded and made over to another Sovereign, except by a formal Treaty, ratified by the Sovereign by whom the cession is made, and that no Subject has the power to alienate any portion of the territory of his Sovereign. Consequently, the agreement made by Keshen that Hong Kong should be ceded to the British Crown, EVEN IF THAT AGREEMENT HAS BEEN RECORDED IN THE FORMAL SHAPE OF A TREATY, would have been of NO VALUE or force until it had been ratified by The Emperor of China. Your Proclamation was therefore ENTIRELY PREMATURE, inasmuch as it does not appear that any formal Treaty for the cession of Hong Kong had been signed between you and Keshen; and that all events, it is certain that at the time when you issued your Proclamation, no such Treaty, even if signed by Keshen, had been ratified by the Emperor.(大寫為筆者所加) " y+ e: y6 [: m
In ignorance of Captain Elliot’s proposals of Jan 8, 1841, it is impossible to state clearly what was agreed to on this point; but it would appear that the Island of Hong Kong had been ceded as a place of settlement; clogged, however, with a condition that all duties are to be paired there in the same manner as they have hitherto been paid at Whampoa; that is (it is presumed) that they should be assessed and collected at Hong Kong by Chinese officers. In fact, IT DOES NOT CLEARLY APPEAR THAT HONG KONG IS CEDED TO GREAT BRITAIN IN ABSOLUTE SOVEREIGNTY.(大寫為筆者所加) : u1 f1 f1 h9 [
2 O7 B& E0 h$ bwww2.tvboxnow.com巴麥尊看似重視國際法和平條約的守則,但在實際操作中,巴麥尊卻沒有放棄違反國際法而得來的香港。香港由 1841 年 1 月起,直至 1842 年 8 月簽訂《南京條約》前,實際上已經屬於一個預先割讓的狀態。 ' s; I v; m6 q }) n' R. Y/ Utvb now,tvbnow,bttvbwww2.tvboxnow.com% T% K- j$ F7 Z, l, B. Q! Z
註:tvb now,tvbnow,bttvb. A4 r, T+ B/ c5 D" n$ ^3 Q1 g
F.O., London, April 21, 1841, Lord Palmerston to captain Elliot, R.N, 《International relation of the Chinese empire》, H.B. Morse, p.642.www2.tvboxnow.com* H' s( K1 a4 Z k
另有中文譯文:, W$ Q% [* Z k* H2 G9 d: ^
「你已經爭得香港的割讓,一處連一所房子都難找到的荒島;甚至這一種所謂的割讓,據我看,由於受種種條件的牽制,也不是一種非經皇帝簽署才能辦到的島嶼主權的割讓,而只是我們在那裏建一居留區的一種許可,其地位是同葡萄牙人在澳門所有的那一種制度一樣。」 ( C0 ]" e3 }- G; Y9 r0 u公仔箱論壇《中華帝國對外關係史》,第一卷,馬士著,第 728 頁。
F.O., London, May 14, 1841, Lord Palmerston to captain Elliot, R.N, 《International relation of the Chinese empire》, H.B. Morse, p.647.TVBNOW 含有熱門話題,最新最快電視,軟體,遊戲,電影,動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。1 w% R5 v7 T. e5 H
另有中文譯文: # N1 a& z p( n3 f# q& u「除非是通過一項由進行割讓的君主所批准的正式條約,沒有一部份屬於一位君主的領土,能割讓予和轉讓給另一位君主,並且沒有一個臣民有權把他君主的領土任何部分割讓與人。因此,琦善所作的把香港割讓予英國君主的協議,縱使該恊議已經寫成一個條約的正式形式,但在中國皇帝予以批准之前,也不會有任何價值或效力的。在你和琦善之間,對於割讓香港一節,并不象是簽訂了任何正式條約,而已無論如何,我們可斷言在你發布通告的當時,這種條約即使經過琦善簽字,也絕不是已經由皇帝批准的,因此你的通告全然是為時太早。」$ J3 P' A5 p0 h9 H. {
《中華帝國對外關係史》,第一卷,馬士著,第 735 頁。
STATEMENT, B. DEMANDS 4, 《International relation of the Chinese empire》, H.B. Morse, p. 646.
《巴麥尊子爵致大清皇帝欽命宰相書》是巴麥尊在1840年2月20日向清政府提出的正式要求:' v8 M- v: A% x' h1 T. @
一、賠償被焚鴉片。www2.tvboxnow.com% p* Z8 {5 H. f1 {9 Q
二、中英官員平等交往。 ( a/ f3 e k$ f: x, ^6 h& m- }0 OTVBNOW 含有熱門話題,最新最快電視,軟體,遊戲,電影,動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。三、割讓沿海島嶼。www2.tvboxnow.com( ?5 y: ?, W$ s& q0 M" V* Z! K
四、賠償商欠。 # ^6 ^9 h1 l. N3 q& G% t; Q五、賠償軍費。 , k/ B/ L4 X; I: q# b公仔箱論壇另外,還有巴麥尊同日發給㦤律和義律的第一號訓令另外十項要求: ) J% ~' r4 [) X& V8 T. y一、中國開放廣州、廈門、福州、上海、寧波為通商囗岸。 * ~0 Y- T# P' ^- M& Z9 D; U. }二、英國政府可在各通商口岸派駐官員,與中國政府官員直接接觸。tvb now,tvbnow,bttvb9 ~, f6 B& k# e/ a( b! L" ? E
三、割讓沿海島嶼。tvb now,tvbnow,bttvb5 J* p3 x% N- E+ l S- q3 q
四、賠償被焚鴉片。公仔箱論壇' U5 S& o6 i1 F1 m
五、中國廢除行商制度,并賠償商欠。1 v: ^; M& J3 Q6 g2 h( B; x$ |
六、賠償軍費。5 D1 e! e. v1 l
七、未付清的賠款以年利百分之五計算;www2.tvboxnow.com f* `7 z. {) P Y7 r4 o" W, i
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《天朝的崩潰》,茅海建著,第 206-207 頁。
The government of China is perfectly convinced that the Island of Hong Kong will not be yielded up, and if it suited the purposes or character of Her Majesty’s Government to accept it under any such modification as would save the appearance of its formal cession, and declaration were made that we were satisfied with that extent of territorial possession, they would be well content to adjust affairs at once. * j8 `: Q, D+ ]! `- E! X