* p" ^3 F' F- Q8 C* R
那麼,在 1841 年 1 月 26 日起至《南京條約》簽訂前,香港是否屬於約開商埠?嚴格來說,由於香港在 1 月 25 日已被英軍佔領,並在翌日完成升旗禮之後,隨即象徵正式接管香港,香港成為英國海外領土。因此香港初期的開埠,並非基於不平等條約。 $ Z* P' h/ \% e7 M+ ]8 M8 D. }- n/ [$ h& w; k
琦善和義律沒有就《穿鼻草約》達成協議,而雙方君主亦沒有批准草約,因此草約本身只是一紙空文,並不具法律效力 [2] 。即使有,香港割讓和開埠都並非以草約的法理為依據,而是建立在後來 1 月 26 日英軍的實際佔領之上。故此,在史學上一般認為,香港開埠為英軍舉行升旗禮的1月26日開始,而非義律宣佈《穿鼻草約》的 1 月 20 日。事實上,草約的宣佈,只是義律在追加法律確認之前,將佔領變為既定事實的手法。而這種經驗主義的行事方式,是英國殖民主義慣用解決問題的方法 [3] 。 . }0 ~1 m4 |) Q! k, N* n8 `& H2 ^TVBNOW 含有熱門話題,最新最快電視,軟體,遊戲,電影,動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。3 q( ?; V( e0 p& R1 S% h
《Convention of Chuenpee》原文 [4] :TVBNOW 含有熱門話題,最新最快電視,軟體,遊戲,電影,動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。. u& U2 E" P4 f
“Her Majesty’s plenipotentiary has now to announce the conclusion of preliminary arrangements between the imperial commissioner and himself involving the following conditions:5 s3 a% b6 }* V& l" D% j5 x
The cession of the island and harbour of Hongkong to the British crown. All just charges and duties tot the empire upon the commerce carried on there to be paid as if the trade were conducted at Whampoa.
An indemnity to the British government of six millions of dollars, on million payable at once, remainder in equal annual instalments ending in 1846.
Direct official intercourse between the countries upon equal footing.
The trade of the port of Canton to be opened within ten further arrangements are practicable at the new settlement."
TVBNOW 含有熱門話題,最新最快電視,軟體,遊戲,電影,動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。/ D, n) v: i2 Z5 w1 Z
1 D- j: U, {2 A5 ~
TVBNOW 含有熱門話題,最新最快電視,軟體,遊戲,電影,動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。; _- g1 ?- \) Y# C) N
亞洲電視節目《解密百年香港 – 哪裡是香港》,簡述《穿鼻草約》的合法性。
1 F0 P" K8 R3 M u A" c6 i' @由17世紀開始,英國為了壟㫁貿易,一般都會透過獲得海外領土,來擴張盎格魯撒克遜在當地的商貿權力 [5] 。按此經驗來看,從義律和後來接任的砵甸乍銳意割讓香港之目的可見,假如英國成功取得香港作為海外領土,香港便成為了其在華鴉片和其他貿易的據點。因此,割讓香港的其中一個重要原因,便是要將香港開辟為自由港,成為對內通市的通商口岸,而草約便是使「開辟」合理的法律工具。, S5 S1 N# [# o; b# A5 b
4 a! j( Y& v3 B) ~- j' X
可是,當時《穿鼻草約》沒有簽訂和承認,香港割讓只是建立在英軍的實際佔領和升旗禮之上,因此草約亦不能成為使「開辟」商埠合理的法律工具。對於類似國際間的強佔行為, 19 世紀初的國際法能夠產生約束力嗎?國際法又是如何詮釋條約效力的? 5 {8 a! [0 p9 A: Vtvb now,tvbnow,bttvb / Y3 Y L" b! O3 L" ]公仔箱論壇現今泛指國際法這一詞,在 19 世紀後半葉一般稱為歐洲公法 (droit public de I’Europe, European public law) 。當時歐洲公法的特徵,主要都是圍繞著保障歐洲國際社會利益,例如歐洲中心主義、擴張主義等的法律秩序。歐洲認為公法是「文明國家之間的法律」,世界亦因而給劃分為歐洲文明國家、中國等半文明國家,和野蠻國家。為了要將侵略世界非文明國家的擴張行為合理化,歐洲公法乃成為一種帝國主義的法律工具 [6] 。 # v% ? N8 w+ {- ~$ tTVBNOW 含有熱門話題,最新最快電視,軟體,遊戲,電影,動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。 & m* [7 e4 }- o1 Z4 {/ dtvb now,tvbnow,bttvb & V/ o, ~: r5 u8 A. E4 dtvb now,tvbnow,bttvb為証明自己是公正無私的文明國家,並要迫使不文明國家遵循他們的價值觀和法理規範來行事,以維護其特權和利益,在 18 世紀初,國際法著作便成為這種擴張主義的白手套。而國際法作者的國藉,便顯得尤其關鍵 – 列強爭相出版國際法。而當中的焦點,便是那個國家更有資格代表普世價值。因此, 19 世紀最著名的國際法著作,1836年分別在倫敦和費城出版的《Elements of International Law》(中譯為《國際法原理》),能夠在 1864 年由美國傳教士丁韙良 (W. A. P. Martin, 1827-1916) 翻譯為漢語版《萬國公法》,美國政府對翻譯的推動,包括時任中國海關稅務司司長赫德 (Sir Robert Hart, 1835-1911) 的支持,實在不可或缺 [7] 。因此,當時國際法的約束力,較為適用於列強間的秩序維繫和利益分配,多於對國際間的無限擴張。 , a' x$ N+ _0 I5 S7 W7 Itvb now,tvbnow,bttvb 6 x/ z+ C% t: u+ ^1 x; s! Rwww2.tvboxnow.com在過去一個多世紀,世界各地在國際法和平條約的領土割讓實例中,一般劃分為因征服而割讓 (subjugation) ,和因條約 (treaty) 買賣而割讓兩種,而兩者均必須以條約為法律依據。那麼,條約基於什麼條件才產生法律效力?《國際法原理》第二章第五節中指出,有效的條約必須首先由君主賦予全權的代表,在達成協議之後,雙方代表簽署才能正式生效 [8] : 6 J P% P+ y, Vwww2.tvboxnow.com
As to other public treaties: in order to enable a public minister or other diplomatic agent to conclude and sign a treaty with the government to which he is accredited, he must be furnished with a full power, independent of his general letter of credence. Grotius, and after him Puffendorf, consider treaties and conventions, thus negotiated and signed, as binding upon the sovereign in whose name they are concluded, in the same manner as any other contract made by a duly authorised agent binds his principal according to the general rules of civil jurisprudence. ~7 X( a% ?9 { q+ C9 f L/ Q; P6 b
the sovereign is bound by the acts of his ambassadors, within the limits of his patent full-power, although the latter may have transcended or violated his secret instruction. But if the minister exceed his authority, or undertake to treat points not contained in his full-power and instructions, the sovereign is fully justified in delaying, or even refusing his ratification. & r) Z) R7 y5 {! otvb now,tvbnow,bttvb
before a sovereign can honourably refuse to ratify that which has been concluded in virtue of a full power, he must have strong and solid reasons, and, in particular, he must show that his minister has deviated from his instruction.tvb now,tvbnow,bttvb8 }4 M0 z' P2 U$ }' G' Z0 k
Such acts or engagements, which made without authority, or exceeding the limits of the authority under which they purport to be made, are called Sponions. These convention must be confirmed by express or tacit ratification.公仔箱論壇1 @: B2 j+ E$ \
the assent of the chambers, clothed with the forms of a legislative act, is considered essential to the ultimate validity of a treaty ceding any portion of the national territory. ) b! \& O! r6 g! a: swww2.tvboxnow.com
By the general principles of private jurisprudence, recognized by most, if not all, CIVILIZED COUNTRIES, a contract obtained by violence is void. Freedom of consent to the validity of every agreement, and contracts obtained under duress are void, because the general welfare of society requires that they should be so.(大寫為筆者所加)& e4 L( L* ^( Z. h
簡而言之,當時國際法似乎已清晰厘定,包含了領土割讓的條約,需要符合兩個前提才能生效: B [9 r8 @3 O8 a
由得到由國家授權,執行國家意旨的全權代表簽訂;
需要得到被割讓一方的同意。
就首項前提來說,從 19 世紀初英國皇室對全權代表 (plentipotentiary) 職權範圍的劃定來看 [11] ,無論在條約至協定 (convention) 至協議 (agreement) 的簽訂上,義律的確擁有全權代理君主的權力。只有在特定的情況下,全權代表在簽署後的條約,才須得到君主最後的確認和批准,條約方能正式生效。公仔箱論壇 C6 x% B8 ]* t) N/ d w
Her Majesty’s plenipotentiary has now to announce the conclusion of preliminary arrangements between the imperial commissioner and himself involving the following conditions:公仔箱論壇; F" I! y3 S; L8 W
The cession of the island and harbour of Hongkong to the British crown. All just charges and duties tot the empire upon the commerce carried on there to be paid as if the trade were conducted at Whampoa.
An indemnity to the British government of six millions of dollars, on million payable at once, remainder in equal annual instalments ending in 1846.
Direct official intercourse between the countries upon equal footing.
The trade of the port of Canton to be opened within ten further arrangements are practicable at the new settlement.
根據草約所指,義律與琦善已達成「達成初步安排」 "the conclusion of preliminary arrangements between the imperial commissioner and himself" 。然而,這個「達成初步安排」的文據究竟是什麼呢?在義律發佈公吿後的第六天,即1841年1月26日英軍佔領香港這天,伯麥照會大鵬協副將賴恩爵,內容如下 [2] :1 z7 B) z" z5 e( R2 \
照得本國公使大臣義,與欽差大臣爵閣部堂琦,說定諸事,議將香港等處全島地方,讓給英國主掌,已在文據在案。是該島現系歸屬大英國王治下地方,應請貴官,速將該島全處所有貴國官兵撤回# f9 j* W/ v. l) b" f
Bremer, Commander-in-chief, and Elliot, Plenipotentiary, etc., by this proclamation make know to the inhabitant of the island of Hongkong, that that island has now become part of the dominions of the Queen of England by clear public agreement between the High Officers of the Celestial and British Courts…..公仔箱論壇+ m6 K. @, E ], F4 h0 c3 X% F
The island of Hongkong having been ceded to the British Crown under the seal of the Imperial Minister and High Commissioner Keshen, it has become necessary to provide the Government thereof, pending Her Majesty’s pleasure……公仔箱論壇/ K. X) }& W) C, L: h' d
兩份公告目的在於曉喻香港居民,英國已經成為香港的新統治者。即便如此,民眾亦毋需惶恐,因為中國傳統禮儀習俗、宗教儀式、風俗習慣等個人權利不但會繼續保留,而且基於引入一種華洋分治,一島兩制的二元化法律體系 (a dual legal system) ,即華人將繼續依從中國法律及習慣,英國及其他各國人士則接受英國法的統治 [4] 。 , X, u9 y; T+ _+ k" [TVBNOW 含有熱門話題,最新最快電視,軟體,遊戲,電影,動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。根據中國社會科學院研究員劉存寛教授,在其著作《香港史論叢》第二章<英國強佔香港島與所謂「穿鼻條約」>中指出,這兩份公告的基礎,是以 1 月 20 日的通知為依據。換言之, 2 月 1 日公告中的 "clear public agreement between the High Officers of the Celestial and British Courts" ,和義律 2 月 2 日公告中所指的 "The island of Hongkong having been ceded to the British Crown under the seal of the Imperial Minister and High Commissioner Keshen" ,都是以義律在通知中的「達成初步安排」為依據。而這個有「達成」「安排」的「文據」,便是琦善在《穿鼻草約》蓋上的關防。( p) F8 f2 g- t& O6 Y" X
# C, ~% f% A5 d0 ?* c- ~% e
可是,這兩份極重要的公告中,存在三個問題:www2.tvboxnow.com3 H8 V% m: W/ B; Y: N
You have obtained the Cession of Hong Kong, a barren Island with hardly a House upon it; and even this Cession as it is called, seems to me, from the conditions with which it is clogged, not to be a cession of the Sovereignty of the Island, which could only be made by the signature of the Emperor, but to be a permission to us to make a Settlement there, upon the same footing on which the Portuguese have an establishment at Macao. / V0 j9 H( b5 G( v' A/ a4 v% f
With reference to the Proclamation which has appeared in the Newspapers of this Country, issued by you to Her Majesty’s Subjects in China, in which you declare the Island of Hong Kong to be annexed forever tot the British dominions, I have to observe to you that no part of the Territory belonging to one Sovereign can be ceded and made over to another Sovereign, except by a formal Treaty, ratified by the Sovereign by whom the cession is made, and that no Subject has the power to alienate any portion of the territory of his Sovereign. Consequently, the agreement made by Keshen that Hong Kong should be ceded to the British Crown, EVEN IF THAT AGREEMENT HAS BEEN RECORDED IN THE FORMAL SHAPE OF A TREATY, would have been of NO VALUE or force until it had been ratified by The Emperor of China. Your Proclamation was therefore ENTIRELY PREMATURE, inasmuch as it does not appear that any formal Treaty for the cession of Hong Kong had been signed between you and Keshen; and that all events, it is certain that at the time when you issued your Proclamation, no such Treaty, even if signed by Keshen, had been ratified by the Emperor.(大寫為筆者所加) L7 f' c( {' D) ^tvb now,tvbnow,bttvb
In ignorance of Captain Elliot’s proposals of Jan 8, 1841, it is impossible to state clearly what was agreed to on this point; but it would appear that the Island of Hong Kong had been ceded as a place of settlement; clogged, however, with a condition that all duties are to be paired there in the same manner as they have hitherto been paid at Whampoa; that is (it is presumed) that they should be assessed and collected at Hong Kong by Chinese officers. In fact, IT DOES NOT CLEARLY APPEAR THAT HONG KONG IS CEDED TO GREAT BRITAIN IN ABSOLUTE SOVEREIGNTY.(大寫為筆者所加)www2.tvboxnow.com7 J1 L3 G9 r$ r0 i1 M
今議將此條款,現由欽差大臣蓋付關防,欽奉公使大臣簽名付印為據,先送英國,為大英主再蓋公印,送回中華欽差宰相,速將大皇帝亦再蓋公印。 . A- u X: l" S4 R* ?tvb now,tvbnow,bttvb
雙方君主批准為條約效力的必要條件,而且即使琦善蓋了關防,最終還是要大皇帝「再蓋公印」作實。對於條約簽署的這些正式程序,義律似乎很清楚。/ E, z9 n3 b' X2 [4 k' f: r4 g- H5 J
然而,基於當時中英兩國的書信往來都是透過船運,往來兩地的書信一般需時六個月才能送達。因此,假如義律在香港有任何重大決定而英國要作出即時干預,技術上來說基本上是不可行。換言之,義律 1 月與琦善達成的「協議」,基本上有大約半年時間可作追加確認。www2.tvboxnow.com* [6 G5 M. ]# ]1 L, Z9 {/ e# I
公仔箱論壇# t7 j* m* q6 V5 h' B0 s
可是,在義律千方百計亦無法追加蓋印作確認的情況下,身在英國的巴麥尊得悉此事。巴麥尊雖然對義律撤出情有獨鍾的舟山大為惱火,但這並不構成他否定割讓香港的決定。事實上,巴麥尊所否定的,不是公告的內容,也不是割讓香港,而是至關重要的割讓程序,因此他才認為公吿是「為時過早 (entirely premature) 」 [6] 。儘管英國外交部始終沒有批准過這兩份公告,但巴麥尊在罷免義律後卻並未因為義律違反程序而放棄佔領香港。相反,巴麥尊要求砵甸乍 (Sir Henry Pottinger, 1789 – 1856) 通過後續的談判,以正式條約的方式追認義律佔領香港的事實。由此可見,《南京條約》的簽訂可視為英方對義律割讓香港和公告的追認 [7] 。 $ ?9 |0 a) B$ K9 T/ d' _; G. Y0 Q% x! k3 c: u
巴麥尊看似重視國際法和平條約的守則,但在實際操作中,巴麥尊卻沒有放棄違反國際法而得來的香港。香港由 1841 年 1 月起,直至 1842 年 8 月簽訂《南京條約》前,實際上已經屬於一個預先割讓的狀態。 3 ^3 g7 S h1 R/ d* O9 {1 S , X# U! P) ^! f2 x4 a( C$ t+ j公仔箱論壇註:www2.tvboxnow.com2 L8 Q4 ?7 j3 i6 @
F.O., London, April 21, 1841, Lord Palmerston to captain Elliot, R.N, 《International relation of the Chinese empire》, H.B. Morse, p.642. 8 x; D* z* u4 W; V3 }. c. P公仔箱論壇另有中文譯文:2 b- Z5 l8 w2 ^) t* z! P C
「你已經爭得香港的割讓,一處連一所房子都難找到的荒島;甚至這一種所謂的割讓,據我看,由於受種種條件的牽制,也不是一種非經皇帝簽署才能辦到的島嶼主權的割讓,而只是我們在那裏建一居留區的一種許可,其地位是同葡萄牙人在澳門所有的那一種制度一樣。」公仔箱論壇" G7 v1 V" n9 ?& |) Z
《中華帝國對外關係史》,第一卷,馬士著,第 728 頁。
F.O., London, May 14, 1841, Lord Palmerston to captain Elliot, R.N, 《International relation of the Chinese empire》, H.B. Morse, p.647.公仔箱論壇- m6 e; t& m% K; K
另有中文譯文: , P4 T$ c1 X# H3 ^3 U* K4 X9 w! J「除非是通過一項由進行割讓的君主所批准的正式條約,沒有一部份屬於一位君主的領土,能割讓予和轉讓給另一位君主,並且沒有一個臣民有權把他君主的領土任何部分割讓與人。因此,琦善所作的把香港割讓予英國君主的協議,縱使該恊議已經寫成一個條約的正式形式,但在中國皇帝予以批准之前,也不會有任何價值或效力的。在你和琦善之間,對於割讓香港一節,并不象是簽訂了任何正式條約,而已無論如何,我們可斷言在你發布通告的當時,這種條約即使經過琦善簽字,也絕不是已經由皇帝批准的,因此你的通告全然是為時太早。」 ( U4 J" t/ u, ]9 n; `! r公仔箱論壇《中華帝國對外關係史》,第一卷,馬士著,第 735 頁。
STATEMENT, B. DEMANDS 4, 《International relation of the Chinese empire》, H.B. Morse, p. 646.
《巴麥尊子爵致大清皇帝欽命宰相書》是巴麥尊在1840年2月20日向清政府提出的正式要求:www2.tvboxnow.com: L6 q* V3 L' [
一、賠償被焚鴉片。8 I9 Q- w9 Y+ \* z x: \( F
二、中英官員平等交往。 7 O' c7 K7 O% D2 p8 k三、割讓沿海島嶼。TVBNOW 含有熱門話題,最新最快電視,軟體,遊戲,電影,動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。/ Z9 K! W7 r+ c$ o! U% E# ~ M, h' J/ s
四、賠償商欠。- u% v1 z0 G2 I4 S; j8 N
五、賠償軍費。 3 y. \8 A; y" F% N( hTVBNOW 含有熱門話題,最新最快電視,軟體,遊戲,電影,動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。另外,還有巴麥尊同日發給㦤律和義律的第一號訓令另外十項要求:tvb now,tvbnow,bttvb' L" t2 Q o7 u" }: A$ N( Y0 ~; o- Q
一、中國開放廣州、廈門、福州、上海、寧波為通商囗岸。 % L' I9 t! A" |1 {& A- L: f( n+ ]tvb now,tvbnow,bttvb二、英國政府可在各通商口岸派駐官員,與中國政府官員直接接觸。 4 x# F. H5 u1 O& l# g三、割讓沿海島嶼。 # P/ o9 [+ e" }+ P公仔箱論壇四、賠償被焚鴉片。" F9 [. r, u) O1 }
五、中國廢除行商制度,并賠償商欠。tvb now,tvbnow,bttvb- s- O& J, I3 [5 O# [
六、賠償軍費。www2.tvboxnow.com3 m' e* K* T6 U' n0 M
七、未付清的賠款以年利百分之五計算;tvb now,tvbnow,bttvb! x G2 ^2 k f& L) S( W9 d+ c
八、條約為中國皇帝批准後,解除對中國沿海的封鎖;賠款全部付清後,英軍方撤離; & d9 I/ A8 m9 |4 M0 z i; xtvb now,tvbnow,bttvb九、條約用英文和中文書寫,一式兩份,文義解釋以英文為主;公仔箱論壇: e4 A7 F; X$ E
十、條約在規定期限內由雙方君主批准。 6 j* F' a# R, [/ c- Q" l5 HTVBNOW 含有熱門話題,最新最快電視,軟體,遊戲,電影,動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。《天朝的崩潰》,茅海建著,第 206-207 頁。
" a2 _/ O! P0 M/ E' @: V公仔箱論壇而在《時序篇》談及琦善只奏「寄居」卻沒提「主治」一事,便更加突顯出琦善對義律虎視香港島主權的理解。 ! B* w2 ~# m0 G. w( m關於義律於 1 月 14 日要求琦善將香港給予英國「主治」以作「寄居」一事,琦善在 20 日給代奏的折子中,避重就輕的上奏道光帝:" o) B/ Q' l5 {0 O
……間觀西洋夷人,久沐天恩懷柔曠典,得以㰎觠在澳門寄居。今此事同律,欲求代為了籲懇天恩,自道光二十一年起,准其就粵東外洋之香港島地方泊舟寄居,即不取再求往他省貿易各等情,懇請代奏前來。奴才除給該夷,令其速由海道齎赴浙江,將定海刻即繳還,奴才亦即收回沙角外,可否仰懇聖恩,俟伊里布奏報收回定海後,俯准該夷自道光二十一年起,仍前來粵通商,並倣照西洋夷人在澳門寄居之例,准其就粵東外洋之香港地方寄居,出自逾格鴻慈 [14] tvb now,tvbnow,bttvb9 M" m$ s. c2 m, {0 S
The government of China is perfectly convinced that the Island of Hong Kong will not be yielded up, and if it suited the purposes or character of Her Majesty’s Government to accept it under any such modification as would save the appearance of its formal cession, and declaration were made that we were satisfied with that extent of territorial possession, they would be well content to adjust affairs at once. 3 @ A- O9 S3 d1 q! i
小結 7 K }# U5 _4 i0 a公仔箱論壇綜合以上分析而言,琦善以義律含糊的口吻奏明道光帝,而義律又故意在攫取香港的手段上偷換概念,雙方都是以自己的方式,以達到各自目的。從廣東談判的時序、策略、琦善和義律對香港主權的心態分析後可以看到,除了香港割讓的議題上,琦善的確答應了條款的某些部分;但是關於香港割讓這一部分,盡管義律脅迫琦善割讓香港的照會中可能出現言語上的誤會 [27] ,但身為欽差的琦善,只是作為道光帝牽線木偶而已。而關於「寄居」一事,儘管琦善在道光帝允許後的確有跟義律進行磋商,但始終雙方亦沒有達成協議。 B }, \: }, r* z0 J公仔箱論壇下篇《香港是如何開埠?(三)》,將會離開廣東談判,探討一下巴麥尊否定《穿鼻草約》,但沒有否定義律公告的議題。: {: ?1 z5 k6 p% e0 v% y